Mandatory Access Control (MAC) operates at which level?

Mandatory Access Control (MAC) operates at the kernel level, which is essential for enforcing strict security policies concerning data and resource access across the system. In a MAC environment, the access rights of users to resources are determined by the operating system's security kernel based on a predefined security policy, rather than by the individual user’s discretion.

This level of control is crucial for high-security environments where the need for stringent access controls is vital, such as in government or military applications. Because MAC does not allow users to change access permissions, it ensures that critical data is protected consistently, independent of user roles or preferences.

The other levels mentioned, like user level, application level, and database level, typically provide more flexibility and user control over access permissions, which is not the case with MAC. These levels do not inherently offer the same level of security enforcement as the kernel level does, which is specialized for managing access controls in a systematic and mandatory manner.